0000011190 00000 n Copyright: © 2012 Feliciano et al. Another explanation for the persistence of MNV-1 on the surfaces could be the drying time prior to the experiment. It was used at a concentration of 200 ppm as determined by a HYDRION QT-10 Quat test paper (QA Supplies, Norfolk, VA). For the bacterial cells, the counts were expressed as log CFU per tableware. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050273.g005. The forks were washed by using fifteen forward and fifteen backward strokes with the sponge. Both Babb and Alvarado et al. All sanitizing solutions during the mechanical ware-washing helped to produce ≥5 log reduction. Cross-contamination of ready-to-eat (RTE) foods with pathogens on contaminated tableware and food preparation utensils is an important factor associated with foodborne illnesses. %PDF-1.4 %���� Comparison of Sodium HypoChlorite. 3 and 4, respectively). In general, MNV-1 showed to be more sensitive to the chlorine sanitizer than to the QAC and control treatments when it was in suspension (virus stock) and in the milk. Conceived and designed the experiments: J. Li MAP. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, To properly identify any significant differences at low levels, the p value was set at <0.0001. Pamphlet 96, Sodium Hypochlorite Manual, also is available. Asthma is a lung disease. 0000010477 00000 n This was then stirred with a sterile tongue depressor (Fisher Scientific, Florence, KY) to ensure proper mixing of the virus with the cream cheese. x�b```f``������#��ǀ |�,7~_``��f�,}٢A#���%��`�`����咗S�de����VRV�r�r��k�驂@�4�T�Եu\ The term chlorine chemically describes the chemical element, but in common it is the … It is inexpensive in comparison to other disinfectants and it is unaffected by hard water. Similarly, the mean reductions achieved by the QAC sanitizer were not significantly different (p>0.0001) from the reductions produced by the control and chlorine treatments. In accordance with the guidelines provided by the ANSI/NSF International standards (ANSI/NSF 3) and the FDA Food Code (2009) [11], any protocol used during ware-washing operation should achieve a 5-log microbial reduction. The plates were incubated at 37°C for 36 h. A Darkfield Colony Counter (American Optical, Buffalo, NY) was used to count the bacterial cells. One of the most damaging disinfectants is sodium hypochlorite. Additionally, previous viral inactivation studies have also shown that non-enveloped viruses (e.g. �ͽ��ܝM�L j���]=-l%. After washing, the tableware items were rinsed, sanitized and placed in a clean rack and air dried for 1 h at 24±2°C. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. 0 Murine norovirus (MNV-1) was provided by Dr. Herbert Virgin IV from Washington University School of Medicine. The formation of this layer can also be the reason for the detection of E. coli and L. innocua in our present study, even after ware-washing. 1090 0 obj <> endobj 0000002798 00000 n https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050273.g003. One could be the food itself. 2 shows the effect of this air-drying on the initial MNV-1titers. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. trailer We also found that all tested disinfectants except for quaternary ammonium chloride disinfectants met and exceeded the EPA standard for bactericidal efficacy against biofilms. 0000002406 00000 n <]>> Disinfecting is often unnecessary. No, PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050273, http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/micro/Viruses_in_food_MRA.pdf, http://www.fda.gov/Food/ScienceResearch/ResearchAreas/SafePracticesforFoodProcesses/ucm091363.htm. This is supported by a previous study conducted by Kuda et al., (2008) and Truby and Bennett (1996), where food sediments, such as milk, meat gravies, fats and certain carbohydrates are capable of adversely affected the bactericidal effect of QAC [29], [30]. A Hobart LXiC Dishwasher was connected to a hot water line and had an incoming water pressure of 138 kPa. The stock culture of each organism was prepared by transferring a loopful of the E. coli and L. innocua into 50 ml of Trypticase soy broth (Difco, Becton Dickinson, Sparks, MD) containing 0.3% (wt/wt) yeast extract (Fisher Scientific) (TSBYE) and then incubation of the cultures at 37°C for 24 h. A loopful of this broth was then inoculated into a Trypticase soy agar slant (Difco, Becton Dickinson) supplemented with 0.3% (wt/wt) yeast extract (TSAYE) and incubated at 37°C for 24 h. This TSAYE containing the cell cultures was stored in a refrigerator at 4°C and used as a stock culture. The swabs were then transferred to test tubes containing 0.1% peptone water and vortexed vigorously to remove any bacteria from the tips. The infected plates were incubated for 1 h at 37°C and 5% CO2, with agitation every 15 min. Ingestion of aerosolized vomitus, indirect exposure via fomites or contaminated environmental surfaces are also recognized as important means for the transmission of noroviruses [1]. 1123 0 obj<>stream Efficacies of sodium hypochlorite and quaternary ammonium sanitizers for reduction of norovirus and selected bacteria during ware-washing operations. It was concluded that MNV-1 appeared to be more resistant to both the washing process and the sanitizers when compared with E. coli K-12 and L. innocua. Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. Tap water was used as a control sanitizer. Fig. Since norovirus is highly contagious and its infectious dose is relatively low (10–100 particles), only a few infectious virus particles can cause human infection [1], [3]. These were purchased from a local grocery store in Columbus, OH. Transmission of the vast majority of foodborne norovirus infections is considered to be through the oral–fecal route, either by direct person-to-person spread or indirectly through contaminated food or water [4], [5]. The survival of MNV-1 in both suspensions was quantified by plaque assay as described above. 0000020937 00000 n These compounds are able to … This selectivity of QAC has been attributed to its ionic binding capabilities and hydrophobic interactions with microbial membrane surfaces. During the washing cycle, the tableware items were automatically sprayed with the wash water for 76.5 s at a pressure and temperature of 138 kPa and 49°C, respectively. Therefore, cream cheese spread and 2% reduced fat ultra high temperature (UHT) milk were used to contaminate the food contact surfaces in this study to simulate a worst case scenario. Yes Hence, the hygiene of the personnel who handle food in foodservice establishments is an important preventive measure in minimizing cross-contamination of food contact surfaces and the food itself with norovirus [16], [18]. The data showed that after washing and sanitizing with the QAC sanitizer, MNV-1 was reduced on the ceramic plates by 2.7 log and the mean reduction for both the forks and glasses were 1.6 and 1.4 log, respectively. 0000005553 00000 n There is a great concern regarding the development of antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas hospital isolates and its possible link to the improper application of commonly used disinfectants.. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050273.g004. After incubation at room temperature for 1 min, 50 µl of aliquots were subject to 10 time's serial dilutions. Bleach- Sodium Hypochlorite 5.25% (bleach concentrate) Phenols Quaternary Ammonium Compounds Accelerated Hydrogen Peroxide (hydrogen peroxide /anionic surfactants) Botanicals Example- Benefect – Thymol Silver Dihydrogen Citrate Example - PureGreen 24 Product Description •EPA registered chlorine bleach at a 5.25% dilution. However, chlorine was able to inactivate both E. coli K-12 and L. innocua. In fact, an association of benzalkonium chloride with sodium hypochlorite, amine oxide or ethoxylated alcohol may reduce the quaternary ammonium concentration, assuring the rotation of disinfectants with similar effectiveness. The sodium hypochlorite solution used in this study was 200±20 ppm and this concentration was determined using a HI 95771 Chlorine Ultra High Range Meter (Hanna Instruments, Ann Arbor, MI). 3 and 4. The same procedure was followed for E. coli K- 12 and L. innocua. We also found that all tested disinfectants except for quaternary ammonium chloride disinfectants met and exceeded the EPA standard for bactericidal efficacy against biofilms. However, the bactericidal activity of QAC can be reduced when bacteria, such as E. coli O26 and Pseudomonas Aeruginosa are allowed to dry with foods on surfaces. Confluent monolayers of RAW 264.7 cells were grown in 6-well plates (BD Falcon, Franklin Lakes, NJ) containing DMEM with 10% FBS for 24 h at 37°C and 5% CO2. Wrote the paper: LF J. Li MAP. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: J. Li MAP. During the study, the survivability and response to the experimental conditions of the bacterial species was compared with that of MNV-1. This result is consistent with those of other researchers who showed that norovirus can survive for up to 30 days on stainless steel (Takahashi et al., 2011) [14] and 7 days on fecal contaminated surfaces [15], [16]. After 1 h incubation, DMEM supplemented with 2% FBS was added to the flask and incubated at 37°C and 5% CO2 for 48 h. When extensive cytopathic effect (CPE) was observed, the virus was harvested by freeze-thawing three times at these temperatures −80°C and 37°C, respectively, to lyse the cells and release virus particles. Briefly, the MNV-1 stock (108 PFU/ml) was seeded on the surface of each table ware and was air dried for 1 h. The virus was recovered by swab-rinse method as described in Materials and Methods, and the titer was determined by plaque assay. Also, the combination of different detergents and sanitizing solutions (especially those containing surfactant agents) should be evaluated since they may help to enhance the removal and inactivation of non-enveloped viruses. This causes rearrangement of the membranes and subsequently leakage of the intracellular constituents [28]. As a result, these organisms were used as comparisons with that of murine norovirus under similar conditions. 0000009856 00000 n %%EOF These samples (before and after the ware-washing procedure) were collected using cotton-tipped swabs moistened with the PBS solution. The key difference between chlorine and sodium hypochlorite is that the chlorine (Cl 2) is a pale yellow color gas whereas the sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is a greenish-yellow solid at room temperature.. Chlorine and sodium hypochlorite are chemical compounds of the chemical element chlorine (Cl). Once the sanitization step was completed and the tableware items air dried for 1 h, 4 samples of each item were collected. Citation: Feliciano L, Li J, Lee J, Pascall MA (2012) Efficacies of Sodium Hypochlorite and Quaternary Ammonium Sanitizers for Reduction of Norovirus and Selected Bacteria during Ware-Washing Operations. Prior to each experiment, a loopful of either E. coli K12 or L. innocua stock culture was propagated aerobically in 100 ml TSBYE at 37°C for 24 h. Each cell broth was centrifuged (Kendro Laboratory Products, Sorvall RC 5C Plus, Newtown, CT) at 6,000 rpm for 10 min at 4°C. Results Overall, sodium hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide disinfectants had significantly higher bactericidal efficacies than quaternary ammonium chloride disinfectants. No, Is the Subject Area "Norovirus" applicable to this article? Although results from these studies differ from those obtained for MNV-1, in this present study, MNV-1 was chosen because it is more resistant to sanitization when compared with FCV. The report also showed that contaminated equipment had a high percentage of out of compliance observations. For the contamination of the ceramic plates, 90 g of cream cheese were weighted in a sterile beaker, heated for less than 10 sec in a microwave, inoculated with 10 ml of the virus stock (1∶10 w/w) to provide a final titer of approximately 7 log plaques forming units per gram (PFU/g). Methods: Accelerated hydrogen peroxide (AHP), quaternary ammonium compounds (Quat), and sodium hypochlorite were tested at label and reduced contact times and concentrations against four MDR P. aeruginosa strains and four MRSA strains. The highest reductions observed for E. coli K-12 (0.9 log) and L. innocua (0.4 log) were on the plates. A total of 3 g of this cream cheese was then applied to the entire food contact surface of each ceramic plate. Fig. 0000002246 00000 n The MNV-1 reductions achieved after exposure to the sanitizing solutions when the virus was in the milk were 1.6, 2.7 and 1.3 logs (control, chlorine and QAC, respectively). 0000003695 00000 n 0000007106 00000 n Iodophor. 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